Kosovo’s complex history is reflected in its diverse linguistic landscape, where several languages are spoken by different ethnic communities, including Albanians, Serbs, Bosniaks, Turks, Roma, Ashkali, Egyptians, Gorani, and Croats. Albanian is spoken by the majority of the population (approximately 91 percent of the total population of 1,589,659), Serbian by about 4–6 percent, while other languages are spoken by smaller communities. In many countries, the presence of such small communities might be considered of limited political relevance. However, in Kosovo, linguistic issues, like the status and use of the Serbian language, carry significant political weight given the historical context, and are closely linked to interethnic relations. In such a linguistically diverse environment, effective interethnic communication and the implementation of language policies rely heavily on translation and interpreting services.
The deployment of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) in 1999 led to the introduction of English in legal and administrative settings. During the early years of international administration, many regulations that in practice had the same legal effect as laws, along with other working and administrative documents produced on a daily basis, were drafted in English and subsequently translated into Albanian and Serbian. English therefore functioned both as a relay language in translation processes and as a lingua franca, which, given the historical context, limited direct linguistic contact among communities, particularly between Albanian and Serbian speakers. Albanian and Serbian were recognised as official languages, while language rights for other minority communities were granted at the municipal level.
As part of the political criteria for opening status talks and ending international administration, Kosovo’s institutions undertook a series of legislative and institutional measures to meet internationally recognised standards for minority rights and language policy. These included adopting the Law on the Use of Languages and other relevant legislation, together with steps aimed at implementing these provisions in the judiciary and public administration. International conventions protecting minority rights were also incorporated into the legal framework. The same principles were later enshrined in Kosovo’s constitution adopted in 2008.
The Law on the Use of Languages provides for the establishment of the Office of the Language Commissioner, an institution responsible for monitoring compliance with language legislation. The law also introduced provisions allowing smaller minority communities, such as Bosnian, Turkish, and Romani, to have their languages formally recognised in certain municipalities.
The Law on the Use of Languages provides for the establishment of the Office of the Language Commissioner, an institution responsible for monitoring compliance with language legislation. Its tasks include investigating violations, reviewing legislation and regulations, advising institutions and the public on language rights and obligations, mediating disputes, and promoting public awareness of language rights. The law also introduced provisions allowing smaller minority communities, such as Bosnian, Turkish, and Romani, to have their languages formally recognised in certain municipalities. Depending on their population size, these languages may be recognised either as official languages at the municipal level or as languages in official use. As a result, several municipalities operate with three or four languages in their administration, while one operates with as many as five.
The application of the Law on the Use of Languages became even more complex following the dissolution of the former Yugoslavia, which diversified Kosovo’s linguistic landscape. This occurred as speakers of languages once grouped under Serbo-Croatian began to identify their language with their ethnic identity, creating additional legal and administrative challenges. This applies to the mutually intelligible languages Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian. Moreover, the preferential use of the Cyrillic script for Serbian in official contexts adds another layer of complexity, particularly since the Latin script was widely used for Serbian in Kosovo before the 1990s. These developments have increased the demand for separate Serbian- and Bosnian-language staff in public institutions.
As international missions such as UNMIK and the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo (EULEX) gradually reduced their presence and transferred executive powers to local institutions, responsibility for implementing multilingualism requirements shifted to Kosovo’s authorities. Until then, translators and interpreters working for international missions, referred to as language assistants, had supported local authorities with interpreting and translation services.
The transfer of responsibilities exposed a significant institutional gap, as Kosovo’s institutions lacked sufficient trained language professionals to meet the extensive requirements arising from the legal framework. To address this problem, recruitment efforts in 2023 and 2024 expanded the pool of translators, according to the Kosovo Judicial Council. The updated list now includes translators and interpreters certified to provide two-way translation and interpreting across numerous language pairs, including Albanian–Serbian, Albanian–Turkish, and Albanian–Bosnian, among others.
Implementing multilingualism in Kosovo: Legal compliance and ongoing challenges
Despite a well-developed legal framework, the implementation of multilingualism remains challenging. Translators and interpreters in public institutions are underpaid and overburdened, which discourages new candidates from pursuing this profession.
Despite a well-developed legal framework, the implementation of multilingualism remains challenging. Translators and interpreters in public institutions are underpaid and overburdened, which discourages new candidates from pursuing this profession. Recruitment processes frequently fail due to a lack of qualified applicants, while those already employed work under tight deadlines and heavy workloads, particularly in courts and municipalities.
To manage this workload, many institutions outsource translation services through public procurement procedures. In these tenders, the lowest price frequently outweighs quality considerations. As a result, translated documents contain inconsistent terminology, grammatical errors, or unclear phrasing. In some cases, entire sections are poorly translated or simplified in ways that alter the original meaning. One such case occurred when differences between the Albanian and Serbian versions of the Criminal Code contributed to a controversial decision in a war crimes trial that allowed a convicted individual of Serbian ethnicity to avoid detention. The case triggered public outrage and reinforced prevailing perceptions of international justice as ethnically biased.
Courts and law enforcement institutions generally comply with language rights more effectively than other parts of the public sector, while local government represents the weakest link in implementation. Municipalities are required to produce documentation in official languages; however, in practice this requirement is not fully met due to the broad scope of the law, limited budgets, staff shortages, and a lack of political commitment. Municipal websites are not consistently updated in all official languages.
Recent reports by the Kosovo Ombudsperson Institution indicate a decline in the number of bilingual municipal officials and widening gaps in bilingual capacity. The International Organization for Migration projects rising demand for more than 600 language professionals over the next decade. At the same time, English is increasingly used as a neutral medium of communication, while younger generations tend to focus on learning English or German, languages perceived as offering better employment opportunities.
As a result, declining knowledge of local languages has reduced direct communication between Albanian and Serbian speakers, and institutions increasingly rely on translators and interpreters. This trend is further reinforced by the retirement of bilingual officials, which deepens institutional dependence on translation services. Monitoring institutions have therefore recommended strengthening language education policies, expanding training programmes, increasing the number of translators and interpreters, and developing standardised legal terminology.
Incentives for implementing multilingualism
Efforts to improve compliance with language legislation, focusing primarily on Albanian–Serbian bilingualism rather than broader multilingualism, began during the period of international administration through the “Standards before Status” policy. This framework promoted minority rights among other objectives. These efforts have continued through more recent initiatives, including municipal training programmes, a Common European Framework of Reference-based digital language platform, the establishment of the University of Prishtina’s Department of Balkan Languages, and a Central Translation Unit. Additional initiatives, including the Municipal Performance Grant and the Best Practice Award, supported by the European Union, international organisations, embassies, and the Kosovo Ministry of Local Government Administration, have encouraged municipalities to translate official documents and maintain bilingual municipal websites.
Long-standing political tensions and the separate operation of Serbian-language schools outside Kosovo’s official education framework, following Serbia’s curriculum, continue to limit interethnic contact and cooperation, and affect the implementation of multilingual policies. Limited political commitment, combined with financial constraints, further weakens institutional capacity to meet multilingual requirements.
Nevertheless, long-standing political tensions and the separate operation of Serbian-language schools outside Kosovo’s official education framework, following Serbia’s curriculum, continue to limit interethnic contact and cooperation, and affect the implementation of multilingual policies. Limited political commitment, combined with financial constraints, further weakens institutional capacity to meet multilingual requirements. As a result, progress has been uneven and, in some cases, has even reversed, particularly in maintaining and updating municipal websites in official languages.
At the same time, increased communication between community members and public institutions tends to strengthen trust. The Serbian community, for example, interacts most frequently with municipalities, the police, and the courts, and levels of trust in these institutions tend to reflect this pattern of interaction.
In conclusion, ongoing political tensions, declining numbers of bilingual officials, financial and technical limitations, and reliance on outsourced translation services continue to undermine the quality and consistency of translation in Kosovo. The effective implementation of multilingual policies requires stronger political commitment, the integration of language education into public policy, professional certification and training for translators and interpreters, the standardisation of legal terminology, and long-term institutional planning. Continued reforms in these areas are necessary to strengthen legal certainty, support interethnic trust, and uphold Kosovo’s language rights framework.
Arben Shala
Associate lecturer of the Faculty of Law of the Haxhi Zeka University (Kosovo)
Note: This blog post summarises an article originally published in issue 84 (December 2025) of the Revista de Llengua i Dret, Journal of Language and Law, which you can consult here.
Statement on the use of artificial intelligence tools: The author declares that artificial intelligence tools have been used to support the tasks of drafting, reviewing or organising the content of this blog post.